Summary
This section maps the UK radio industry and the regulatory framework for radio. It will present an overview of the different sectors for radio: BBC, commercial and community radio (including hospital and student stations) and the small but growing sector of independent production companies and web and podcasting operators. At the beginning of the second millennium the very use of the term 'radio' has become debatable because it is now available on so many platforms other than that provided by the traditional transmitter-receiver model. This section will survey these platforms including Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) Digital Multimedia Broadcasting through mobile devices (DMB) web radio and podcasting.Introduction
Knowledge of the context of changing social, economic, political, technological and cultural factors (or STEP factors) is crucial for radio station managers when they plan the way a station runs. How people receive the station, how it spends its budget and what it can broadcast are all issues critical to its success. An understanding of the radio industry 'landscape' and the three main sectors of BBC, commercial and community radio is important for any radio station manager in the UK. Similarly managers need insight into changes in national and global patterns of media ownership and concentration and important concepts such as public service broadcasting if they are to have an informed framework to work within.In this Section we will consider how these factors have helped influence the development of the radio broadcast industry - including how it is politically regulated; how the commercial sector has consolidated economically in to several major groups alongside the license funded BBC and community stations; how different broadcasters meet different social needs - including community broadcasting and hospital and university radio, and; how new technology has again opened up this market to new forms of broadcasting and competition. We will do this by considering how the industry has developed and how it may continue to develop influenced by its current and possible future technological needs.
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
BBC radio has been established as a public service, funded by a licence fee since 1922. The radio channels and services that have developed over the last century are some of the most sophisticated and varied in world radio. BBC Radio is divided in to five analogue national networks: Radio 1 provides new music and entertainment for 15-24 year olds; Radio 2, music & entertainment for over 25s; Radio 3, Classical, Jazz, World, Arts and Drama; Radio 4, 'intelligent speech radio' and Radio Five Live, live news and sport. There are five digital channels: 1xtra. Black Music; 6 Music, contemporary music; BBC 7, archive and contemporary comedy, drama and children's programmes; Five Live Sports, extra additional commentaries from major sporting events and The Asian Network, providing speech and news based programming of Asian interest. In addition there are five national channels: Radio Scotland, Radio nan Gaidheal, Radio Wales, Radio Cymru, Radio Ulster and Radio Foyle, and 39 local radio stations across England.Integral to BBC Radio is BBC Online, a vast selection of web pages that provide programme related services, back up information and increasingly audio content to enable people to time shift their listening. The BBC World Service is funded separately by government, not through the licence fee. Under its public service remit each channel attracts a wide range of listeners in terms of age, demographic and lifestyle however each station does have a format and 'core' target audience. BBC managers strive to cater for existing audiences whilst always keeping an eye on 'bringing on' new listeners, for instance younger audiences to local radio or Radio 4.
BBC local radio has operated since 1967 and 40 stations across Britain provide local audiences with news, entertainment and specialist programming. Since 2005 these stations largely stopped having programmes for specific groups and instead they aim at a broad demographic of 50 plus with a centralised playlist across all stations. There has also been a rationalisation of programming across regions in the evening with regional programme sharing (see section 2.2 for discussion BBC management of how presenters 'imagine' their target listeners).
The BBC operates under a Royal Charter that was last renewed on 1st January 2007 after extensive internal review in the BBC, scrutiny within Parliament and consultation with members of public and many different organizations representing public interests. There was much debate about the repositioning of Public Service Broadcasting, how the BBC should be funded and the roles and responsibilities of BBC journalism, particularly in the light of BBC reporting about David Kelly, the weapons expert who apparently committed suicide after being named as the source for a BBC story about the government's case for war with Iraq. (See also discussion about the formation of media policies in Freedman, 2008).
The Charter lays out its core aims and rules for governance in terms of the BBC Trust and Audience Councils (see below). The Department for Culture Media and Sport has also established detailed agreements governing the BBC's services and regulation. It's core purposes are:
- Sustaining citizenship and civil society;
- Promoting education and learning;
- Stimulating creativity and cultural excellence by using the licence fee as venture capital for creativity;
- Representing the UK, its nations and regions;
- Bringing the UK to the world and the world to the UK;
- Building digital Britain.
(DCMS 2006: 9)
The BBC Trust has Members who are appointed by the Queen on advice from ministers, following an open appointments' procedure. They have extensive experience in public and commercial life and are there to represent the licence payers, to 'ensure the BBC is independent, innovative and efficient: a creative and economic force for good in the UK, and for the UK internationally (http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbctrust/about/index.html). National and Regional Audience Councils are made up of members of the public who have who meet monthly to present issues of audience feedback and concern which are then fed back to Trust members - each council is chaired by a Trustee. Issues about management and performance of all radio stations are considered alongside online and television.
The BBC Executive Board, chaired by the Director General, is responsible for the overall operational management of the BBC with priorities laid down by the BBC Trust. The Board member directly concerned with radio is the Director of BBC Audio and Music who is responsible for all the network and digital channels as well as the Radio Drama, BBC Proms and audio across TV and radio. The deputy Director General is currently responsible for News and journalism across the whole of the BBC that includes all radio news. The Director of Nations and Regions is responsible for local radio and does not sit on the Executive Board.
The next tier of management is the Channel controllers. In 2008 some Radio controllers are responsible for a digital only channel in addition to one of the main networks, thus Controller Radio 1 is also responsible for 1Xtra, the Asian Network and BBC Switch. The Controller of Radio 2 is also responsible for 6 music, theController of Radio 3 is also Director of BBC Proms; Controller, Radio 5 Live also controls 5 Live Sports Extra. There is also the post of Controller, Radio 4 and Head of Radio Entertainment. Each regional level has a Head of Regional & Local Programmes responsible for radio, TV and online, usually several stations and each station will have a Managing Editor responsible for the day to day operations of each local radio station. Under this layer will be production (including programme editors, producers, broadcast assistants and presenters, journalism, technical and support staff responsible for daily programme making for each station.
From this it may be seen that there is a complicated but clear management hierarchy within the BBC. What is also apparent is that this structure focuses on 'divisions' where each Controller has responsibility for several different areas and a geographic focus at a regional level (Mintzberg 1988). In addition to this structure the BBC has endeavored to empower its managers rather then retain control and authority at the top of the organization. Managers are however encouraged to 'refer' issues up the management hierarchy should they be unsure of what action to take. Interestingly in the wake of the October 2008 Russell Brand and Jonathan Ross controversy it was the Controller of BBC Radio 2 who took ultimate responsibility and resigned - not the programme producer. Perhaps the production team in this particular case was held not to be responsible for the hiring and retention of two 'controversial' media presenters. That may have been a decision referred up to the Controller, Radio 2.
Commercial Radio
Commercially funded radio is acknowledged to be 'the most dominant form of sound broadcasting in the world' (Barnard 2000: 49). In the UK it is a relatively young sector and it operates in competition for BBC local, regional and national audiences. Established under the then Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) it started off in 1973 with two stations in London which were rapidly joined by 17 others dotted across the UK over the next three years. By 1985 the IBA had licensed 49 stations but growth really took off after the 1990 Broadcasting Act replaced the IBA with the Radio Authority. By the start of the new millennium the UK had around 250 commercial radio services, a number which has continued to grow under Ofcom and with the introduction of digital channels.Ofcom (Office of Communications) was established by the 2003 Communications Act as the regulator and licence awarding body for UK radio. It awards licences to commercial analogue and digital radio, community radio and restricted service licences (RSLs). It monitors programmes and format compliance and lays down codes of practice for broadcast content and deals breaches of these codes and complaints.
Growth in terrestrial licences and the development of digital, internet and satellite radio services has been followed by a consolidation of the UK commercial radio business into the hands of a smaller number of larger companies. Of the 300 or so commercial radio stations operating by the end of 2007 over half were controlled by just four companies, GCap, Bauer, TLRC and UTV. The majority of the remainder were held by groups of between 3 and 13 stations. A list of local analogue stations in group ownership shows that, of the 260 such services listed in 2007, more than 100 (some 40 per cent) have since changed branding or ownership, or closed down.
The number of licences held may not be the best indicator of power in the sector however, some of the latter groups were very well-funded operations holding a small number of licences for major cities or regions, commanding significant population coverage without the overheads of the dozens of smaller stations held by the more thinly spread groups.
The comparable position ten years earlier was set out in 'Report on UK Commercial Radio's Future' published by National Economic Research Associates (NERA 1998) In October 1997 there were only 180 analogue commercial radio licences of which the largest four groups (GWR Group, Capital Radio, Emap and Scottish Radio Holdings) held only 41 per cent. GWR and Capital subsequently merged to form GCap while Scottish Radio Holdings was taken over by Emap, later to become Bauer.
The majority of local and regional commercial radio stations are in group ownership, some groups focussing on one part of the country and others on particular formats while the two largest groups have a disparate range of services dotted across most of the UK.
By the end of 2007 two of the largest groups were GCap, with some 74 radio brands ranging from Capital FM and dozens of town and city-sized FM stations across England and Wales to 25 Capital Gold and Classic Gold stations on AM and the XFM regional stations in London, Manchester and Scotland, and Chrysalis with the Galaxy and Heart regional FM brands plus LBC on AM and FM in London. During 2008 Gcap (itself formed from an earlier merger of Capital Radio Group with GWR) and the former Chrysalis stations all became part of the Global Radio Group. Global also operates the national station Classic FM.
Similarly Bauer Media now controls own the stations formerly run by Emap, including the Big City Network of local FM stations, the Magic, Kiss and Kerrang brands and the Scottish stations, including Clyde and Forth, formerly operated by Scottish Radio Holdings.
The Guardian Media Group operates regional FM stations under the Real Radio, Smooth and Rock Radio brands, having incorporated the former Saga services into the Smooth stable and Century Radio into the Real brand.
The remaining, mainly smaller, local radio services are largely group into the hands of a few groups, including CN Radio, Kent Messenger Group, Lincs FM Group, The Local Radio Company, Tindle Radio, UKRD Group and UTV Radio (who also operate national commercial station TalkSport).
Economies of scale
There are undoubted economic advantages for a company holding a number of radio licences (Doyle 2002a). Quite apart from any networking or sharing of programming which may be possible, the ability to share technical overheads and administration costs can make a significant difference to the otherwise marginal profitability of the average local station.Having large groups can also make stations less vulnerable to being taken over by predators and arguably make managers' jobs more secure:
'Senior managers usually want to avoid takeover and the risk of replacement by a new management team. By expanding - e.g. through acquisition of several smaller companies- a firm makes itself a more expensive and difficult target for takeover, the greater the job security for its senior managers.'It is striking to be reminded by the NERA report (1998) that the top four groups, while operating fewer than half the commercial radio stations, achieved sales in the 1995-96 financial year totalling £217 million, 72 per cent of the total revenue earned by the whole industry. While the then four big groups (GWR, Capital, Emap and SRH) returned a combined annual profit of over £61 million, NERA concluded that radio groups other than these top four were on average not making a profit.
(Doyle 2002a: 67)
While the underlying principle remains true today the fiscal picture has been clouded by difficulties and uncertainties surrounding the large radio empires built up over many years of acquisitions by GCap, Emap and others, and now by the entry of multi-national companies such as the German-based Bauer Publishing Group.and the Times of India who in 2008 purchased and relaunched national commercial station Virgin Radio as Absolute Radio.
Interestingly, 2008 saw a slight reversal of the trend towards the larger radio groups with a tendency towards the disaggregation of some of the smaller local stations. Previously unprofitable FM services in places like Bath, Southport, Swindon and Huddersfield having been taken over, reportedly for token amounts, by smaller companies who plainly believed they could run a more effective and efficient small-scale local service.
Concerns about the concentration of control centre on two main issues: the effect of any reduction in plurality of media ownership in each market and any damaging effect on the localness of each service, where this is a factor in their format. The commercial radio industry has argued, with considerable success, for a relaxation of the rules governing how many stations in the same market may be owned by a single company.
During the consultation prior to the 2003 Communications Act the largest of the Independent Local Radio groups, GWR Group plc, was one of the loudest voices arguing for deregulation of ownership rules. In particular they rebutted common suggestions that stations under the same ownership would sound the same and target the same audience, arguing that: 'Ownership convergence leads to more format choice for listeners and, in the developed market that now exists, poses no threat to plurality of voice.' (Radio Magazine 2000).
GWR used examples from the recently deregulated US market to demonstrate that programming diversity increases as ownership converges and concluded: 'Relating these conclusions to a more liberally regulated future, one can see that ownership convergence would result in a greater variety of formats, with niche formats being supported by an owner's mainstream stations as a way of providing a comprehensive range of choices to listeners.' (Radio Magazine 2000)
Demonstrating that the fundamental issues underpinning radio management have not changed significantly over the years, these commercial radio arguments echo those deployed by the BBC more than 40 years earlier to justify their control over a range of broadcast outlets, most notably in 1958 when they were competing with the new Independent Television Authority for the channels needed for a second television service. The former BBC Director General, Sir Ian Jacob, observed that the BBC and ITA tended to 'go their separate ways and the public is denied true alternatives. Competition in broadcasting inevitably produces this result.' (Paulu 1961: 25) He argued that a third TV network operated by a new commercial undertaking would simply compete head-on with the existing services. But by programming its two services together the BBC would provide two truly complementary services, which would supplement rather than compete with each other.
The national communications regulator is charged with balancing commercial pressures towards undue concentration of ownerhip and the homogenisation of electronic media. Ofcom's principal statutory duty is 'to further the interests of citizens in relation to communications matters; and to further interests of consumers in relevant markets, where appropriate by promoting competition' and in terms of radio to make sure that radio services 'are both of a high quality and calculated to appeal to a variety of tastes and interests (Ofcom 2004: 5) It is a 'light touch' authority which also carries out research into markets and aims to 'remain at the forefront of technological understanding' (2004:6).
In order to achieve its mission of 'furthering the interests of citizen consumers as the communications industries enter the digital age' (2004:6) Ofcom will:
- balance the promotion of choice and competition with the duty to foster plurality, informed citizenship, protect viewers, listeners and customers and promote cultural diversity;
- serve the interests of the citizen-consumer as the communications industry enters the digital age;
- support the need for innovators, creators and investors to flourish within markets driven by full and fair competition between all providers; and
- encourage the evolution of electronic media and
communications networks to the greater benefit of all who live in
the United Kingdom
(Ofcom 2004: 6)
Economies of scale however have not helped the big commercial radio groups to establish a successful business model for Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), nor to provide a wealth of complimentary programming. Encouraged to take up space on the first wave of local digital multiplexes by the offer of an automatic extension of their existing analogue licences, most of the larger AM and FM stations rushed to simulcast their programmes on DAB. Only the smaller stations - typically covering an area smaller than a DAB multiplex - declined to pay for a second (and usually far more expensive) transmission chain. Little effort was made however to generate original content and stations unique to the DAB platform. Outside the BBC at the time of writing Planet Rock is the only digital-only station with carriage on the national multiplexes, Core and One World closed in early 2008 and the Jazz and Capital Life followed in March 2008. Announcing the last two closures, GCap Media Chief Executive Fru Hazlitt Hazlitt explained:
The majority of people who are listening through DAB receivers are listening to stations that are simulcasting on FM. The majority of DAB receivers out there are FM-enabled too. If you put that against a background of the cost structure of DAB, it cannot be an economically viable platform.Other remaining digital-only services include those from the Bauer publishing stable, including The Hits, Kerrang and Heat which appear on a number of local multiplexes across the UK. Critics point to the lack of exciting exclusive DAB content as a reason for an apparent lack of consumer enthusiasm for the new platform, while others dispute the original claims of superior technical quality compared to FM.
(Plunkett 2008)
Community Radio
This is the newest sector of UK and arguably one of the most interesting developments in UK radio for new entrants to radio management. Anthony Everitt described it as 'one of the most important cultural developments in this country for many years' (Carter 2003: 66). In 2004, after over 25 years of campaigning by grass roots and specialist interest groups the Community Radio Order established Community Radio as a distinct sector alongside BBC and Commercial Radio. Community Radio is licensed and overseen by Ofcom and at the time of writing is completing a rolling programme of advertising licences on a region-by-region basis with some 170 licences awarded and over one hundred stations on air. Ofcom states that the characteristics of community radio services are:- That they are local services provided primarily for the good of members of the public, or of particular communities, and in order to deliver social gain, rather than primarily for commercial reasons or for the financial or other material gain of the individuals involved in providing the service;
- That the service is intended primarily to serve one or more communities (whether or not it also serves other members of the public);
- That the person providing the service does not do so in order to make a financial profit by so doing, and uses any profit that is produced in the provision of the service wholly and exclusively for securing or improving the future provision of the service, or for the delivery of social gain to members of the public or the community that the service is intended to serve;
- That members of the community it is intended to serve are given opportunities to participate in the operation and management of the service;
- That, in respect of the provision of that service, the person
providing the service makes himself accountable to the community
that the service is intended to serve.
(http://www.ofcom.org.uk/radio/ifi/rbl/commun_radio/tlproc/awards/sep08/)
There is no doubt that this sector has opened up opportunities to many different people at a grass roots level to get experience of a range of jobs in a radio station. However the sector as a whole is one run by volunteer labour not one where there are many paid work opportunities. Community radio has always acted as a stepping stone to work in the mainstream media and the expansion of this sector is an opportunity for people who may not have felt able to contact a commercial or BBC station to gain confidence and experience in radio.
One of the interesting aspects of this new sector is that it has created the possibility for new types of station operations, for instance management of a variety of funding sources from training and programme development projects and social marketing campaigns so that community stations are sustainable. The management of volunteers and participation in all aspects of the station programme making and governance is also an interesting area. The sector in the UK is still very young but it is clear that it can learn from the experience of managers in the voluntary sector as well as from the mainstream radio industry.
Hospital, Student Radio and Restricted Service Licences
Alongside the Community Radio sector there are three other types of radio where people can gain experience of managing a radio station - radio stations based in Hospital and Colleges or Universities and Restricted Service Licences (RSL) which are short term stations where formats can be tested out or special events like a sports event or festival can be catered for. All are licensed by Ofcom. Most people who work in the broadcast side of radio have volunteered for Hospital or Student stations at the beginning of their careers or have gained experience working on RSLs.There are about 60 Student radio stations in the UK. Many broadcast on licences that allow them a low power medium wave frequency (LPAM) so that they can broadcast within the confines of a distinct campus (e.g. at Sussex University), some as RSLs and some as internet only. Most are funded by student unions or associations and some take advertising. These stations usually operate on a membership basis (anything between 18 and 500 members according to the Student Radio Association website). Since 2000 some stations based at Universities have applied for community licence so that they can provide specific services to students and other people in their transmission area, for example Siren Radio at the University of Lincoln and Utopia FM in Sunderland. Scifo outlines the various functions of student radio which range from representing student interests, experimenting with alternative formats and music to offering 'an important space for minority voices and promote wider campus and community participation and political activism'. (Scifo 2007:233)
The Hospital Broadcasting Association represents 228 stations and broadcasts total of 18,648 hours every week ( http://www.hbauk.co.uk/public/stations/?cmd=199). Some stations have been established for many years (Radio Sunderland for Hospitals started in 1953) and programming generally aims to provide information and entertainment for hospital patients with a core of music requests that are gathered by volunteers from patients. There are usually opportunities for volunteers to work their way up into management positions in stations and many professional station managers have started off in hospital radio stations.
Restricted Service licences (RSL) have been available since 1998 (and before that as 'Special Event Licences') for people wanting to run short term radio stations. They have been very important as short term trials for, and providing training opportunities for, the new community radio sector. There are now three categories:
Short-term RSLs (SRSLs) offer a maximum of two licences per year which can last up to 28 consecutive days on low power on AM or FM and are widely taken up for community and religious broadcasts (about half of these are for the Muslim religious festival of Ramadam [Ofcom 2008]) SRSL licences are also available for sports event broadcasts, festival broadcasts, and student and educational broadcasts (for instance for welcoming freshers students).
Long-term RSLs is a licence category provided within a clearly-defined single site occupied by an establishment such as a university, hospital, military barracks, marina or shopping centre up to five years at low power. They usually broadcast on AM only.
The third type of licence is for Audio Distribution Systems which are low-power, site-based, broadcast services using spectrum outside the traditional broadcast bands.
Independent Production companies
There are growing numbers of independent radio producers and companies making programmes for the BBC, commercial radio and corporate clients. Many of these producers are former BBC employees made redundant in the 1990s under John Birt's director generalship or who decided that they would have more creative independence working outside the BBC. An increasing number are a new generation of media producers who work across different media platforms including internet and radio. The BBC is now required to have at least 10 per cent of programmes on its analogue and digital channels made by independents and there are 119 companies on the 2008 register of BBC Radio 4 independent radio producers. Independents range from companies who operate with just one or two people to larger groups who have developed multi million pound businesses making media content across TV, radio and multimedia. Loftus Productions for instance is a small award winning company that makes creative and experimental features, documentaries and dramas mainly for BBC radios 3 and 4. Somethin' Else is the largest independent producer in the UK and makes programmes for Radio 1, 2 , 4 and 5Live, designs websites and produces podcasts, produces to UK top 40 for commercial radio and manages media campaigns linking up broadcasters and stations from all over the UK.The Radio Independents Group represents most of these companies and has been lobbying consistently for a larger proportion of programmes to be made by independents. It also negotiates with unions such as Equity and broadcasters about agreements on behalf of its members. The award of licences for new national digital radio channels to Channel 4 Radio in 2007 was welcomed as opening a new field for independent producers expansion into the commercial speech sector, however plans for the service were abandoned during the 'credit-crunch' financial crisis of 2008.
Web and podcasts
A range of amateur and professional broadcasters run their own web radio stations and podcasts and, in addition to computers, there are now a number of devices designed to receive internet radio stations from around the world. Rajar research has shown that about eight million people in Britain listen to internet radio stations at least once a week (Wray, 2008).Internet-only radio stations can be established by an individual using just a computer and an internet link. Many 'webcasters' set up their stations for free and are not required to pay licence fees, or choose to exploit ambiguities in copyright rules (see Priestman 2002 for a discussion of this). Most web stations are however dependent upon commercial copyright music. Most established analogue stations now 'stream' their programming at the same time as their broadcast transmissions and this has had far reaching implications for their ability to reach wider (although not necessarily larger) audiences. Storing audio on the web has enabled listeners to 'timeshift' in their listening habits to suit their lifestyles (Priestman, 2002, Atton, 2004). For those groups without broadcast licences, the ability to run internet based web radio stations and to produce podcasts has enabled programme makers and audiences to relate in new ways to radio. The communities producing content through networking amongst their diasporic communities and linking their cultural and social interests in local and global spheres. 'Shalom Salaam' for instance is a web station based in Bristol, UK, which has constructed a space for broadcast dialogue between Jews and Muslims. Audiences now listen in increasing numbers to audio broadcasts through their televisions, MP3 players and DAB Radio. Increasingly knowledge of, and access to, new media such as the internet is crucial for social functioning, particularly amongst young people. Many established stations use the web to compliment their broadcasting activities: for example by simulcasting to attract audiences outside their direct transmission area and by providing flexible listening opportunities (for instance 'listen again' and podcasts) so audiences can listen to programmes when they want.
Conventional broadcasters can increase their audiences to include listeners from the wider audience listening via the web. An example is Resonance FM an experimental arts community radio station in London which attracts listeners from all over the world. Connemara Community Radio repeats certain programmes for people who originated from the district and who now can listen via the Internet from places like Britain, Australia and the USA. There is also the potential for enhancing participation through interactive websites and discussion lists that enable on-line participation and information for listeners and, in the case of community radio, volunteers. One of the more interesting uses of the web is for stations to network, share programmes and link up for campaigns. An example of this is the 'Radio Voices Without Frontiers' campaign organised through a world network of community stations through the World Association of Community Radio (AMARC). Annually scores of community stations world wide link up and web cast on the theme of anti racism and the elimination of racial inequalities.
Audio Platforms and Futures
The radio industry worldwide has learnt to respond to competition through taking on alternative forms of digital distribution and by continuing to keep abreast of the media uses of its audiences (Ferguson, 2006). All three sectors in the UK are now available on different platforms including Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and internet radio.The story of DAB in the UK is still unfolding (see above). Compared to other European countries the coverage of digital radio in the UK has been high, (Lax et al, 2008) however there is division in the UK radio community about its suitability and longevity, the willingness of broadcasters to set up stations using this technology and the likelihood of mass audiences adopting this new format, buying new DAB sets and forsaking the advantages of FM. According to the Digital Radio Development Bureau there is still growth in this sector - there are 7.7m sets in circulation and sales up by a fifth, year on year. (Gibson 2008).
According to Lax et al:
the availability of spare FM spectrum; the relationship between commercial and public service radio; the balance between local and national services. These differences have all shaped the development of the DAB policy (and thus the current level of its development) in each country.As the Ofcom report about 'the iPod generation' has identified, radio managers need to be aware that young people want radio to do more and to have more control over what, how and when they listen. As a recently established radio blogger Mark Ramsey stated:
(Lax et al 2008: 58)
Listeners...ask the key question we (broadcasters) too often forget: "What's in it for me? Why should I spend my time HERE rather than on Facebook or MySpace?"Through Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) radio can be enhanced as listeners can receive music and entertainment in different ways, listen through mobile devices like MP3 player or mobile phone and download music and radio programmes in the form of podcasts (The Knowledge Agency, 2004). For radio managers knowledge of how to apply this concept of 'personalization' to radio, where people have control over their own personal media space will become increasingly important. (Doyle, 2002a)
(http://www.hear2.com/)
The idea that audiences generate content as well as receive it is also an important factor for twenty-first century radio managers. User Generated Content (UGC) has been identified as one of the key trends for radio:
UGC will have an increasingly important role to play in what UK radio audiences will come to expect from services across all platforms and devices, wherever and whenever they want.The UK Radio industry has constantly responded to economic, societal, political and technological forces. In the last decade the BBC, commercial and the emerging community sector have all embraced digital technologies and most stations are using the internet to enable the audience to participate in various ways in their station and services. Although the take up of DAB amongst broadcasters in the UK is one of the highest in Europe and audiences seem to be receptive to new ways of listening, the jury is still out on whether DAB will be accepted as a viable investment long term by broadcasters or whether other emerging digital technologies will take its place. Whilst radio is surviving as a medium, increasingly terms like 'smart radio', 'enhanced radio', even 'visual radio' are becoming common parlance amongst radio managers and broadcasters.
(DTI, 2005: 30)
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